UNIT 6 — ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING (ELT)

PART 1 — THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS & MAJOR APPROACHES

⭐ 1. FOUNDATIONS OF ELT — KEY CONCEPTS

What is ELT?

English Language Teaching (ELT) deals with:

How English is learned
How English should be taught
Classroom techniques and instructional design
Use of technology and resources
Classroom management and evaluation

ELT is both a science (linguistic principles, psychology) and an art (teacher creativity, interaction).

⭐ 2. LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES

(A) Behaviourism (Skinner, 1957)

Language learning = habit formation
Stimulus → Response → Reinforcement
Imitation, drill, repetition
Errors = bad habits

Influence: Audiolingual Method, drills, pattern practice.

(B) Cognitivism (Chomsky, 1965)

Language learning = mental process
Mind = rule-forming system
Learner is active
Errors = signs of learning

Influence: Cognitive-code method.

(C) Constructivism (Bruner, Vygotsky)

Learners build knowledge through interaction
Learning is meaningful, contextual, collaborative
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Scaffolding

Influence: Communicative approach, task-based learning.

(D) Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

Stephen Krashen proposed 5 theories:

Acquisition vs Learning

Acquisition = subconscious
Learning = conscious rules

Monitor Hypothesis
Input Hypothesis (i + 1)
Affective Filter Hypothesis
Natural Order Hypothesis

Influence: Natural Approach, extensive reading.

(E) Interaction Hypothesis (Long)

Language develops through interaction
Negotiation of meaning improves learning

(F) Sociocultural Theory

Learning occurs in social context
Teacher = facilitator
Peer learning important

⭐ 3. MAJOR APPROACHES IN ELT

(A) Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

Origin: 18th–19th century, classical language teaching.
Features:

Translation from L1 ↔ L2
Grammar rules, vocabulary lists
Focus: reading and writing
Little speaking or listening

Advantages: Easy, systematic
Disadvantages: No communication; outdated

(B) Direct Method (DM)

Origin: Berlitz schools
Features:

No mother tongue
Meaning taught through demonstration
Everyday vocabulary
Emphasis on oral communication

Techniques: Q&A, conversation, self-correction
Weakness: Requires well-trained teachers

(C) Audiolingual Method (ALM)

Origin: American army (WWII)
Basis: Behaviourism + Structural Linguistics
Features:

Drills, pattern practice
No grammar explanation
Habit formation

Techniques:

Substitution drills
Transformation drills
Repetition

Criticism: Mechanical, boring

(D) Cognitive-Code Approach

Reaction against ALM
Features:

Understanding rules is essential
Emphasis on mental processing

(E) Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Most influential modern approach.
Focus:

Communicative competence (Hymes)
Fluency more than accuracy
Real-life tasks

Techniques:

Role play
Pair work
Discussions
Problem-solving
Task-based learning

Teacher role: Facilitator, monitor
Strength: Real communication
Weakness: Lacks grammar focus if poorly implemented

(F) Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

Developer: Prabhu (Bangalore Project)
Focus:

Meaningful tasks
Form emerges naturally

Steps:

Pre-task
Task
Post-task

Examples:

Ordering food
Planning a trip
Solving a problem

(G) The Natural Approach (Krashen & Terrell)

Principles:

Comprehensible input (i + 1)
Low anxiety
Focus on meaning
Speaking emerges naturally

(H) Silent Way (Caleb Gattegno)

Characteristics:

Teacher silent → Students active
Use of Cuisenaire rods
Discovery learning

(I) Suggestopedia (Lozanov)

Features:

Learning through relaxation
Music, comfortable environment
Positive suggestion

(J) Total Physical Response (TPR)

Developer: James Asher
Focus:

Listening before speaking
Commands + physical actions

Example:
Teacher says: “Stand up, walk to the door.”
Learners act first, speak later.

(K) Eclectic Method

Modern trend: Combine multiple methods.
Teacher chooses best techniques for:

learner needs
context
level
objective

⭐ PART 2 — METHODS, TECHNIQUES & CLASSROOM PRACTICES

1. Techniques in Modern ELT

Role play
Simulation
Pair work
Group work
Language games
Information-gap activities
Problem-solving tasks
Storytelling
Dialogues
Debates

2. Syllabus Types

(A) Structural syllabus

Grammar items arranged logically.

(B) Situational syllabus

Language taught for real-life situations.
(e.g., meeting friends, shopping)

(C) Notional–Functional syllabus

Based on:

notions (time, frequency)
functions (requesting, apologizing)

(D) Communicative syllabus

Mixes tasks, situations, functions.

(E) Task-based syllabus

Sequence of real-world tasks.

(F) Lexical syllabus

Vocabulary and lexical chunks (collocations, idioms).

⭐ PART 3 — TECHNOLOGY IN ELT

1. Traditional technological aids

Black/white board
Chart, flashcards
Projector
Radio/TV

2. Modern technology

(A) Computers

Language labs
Multimedia teaching
CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning)

(B) Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL)

Apps like:

Duolingo
Elsa Speak
BBC Learning English

(C) Internet-based Teaching

Online dictionaries
Google Classroom
WhatsApp groups
YouTube tutorials
MOOCs

3. AI & ELT

ChatGPT as tutor
Automated feedback
AI speaking practice
AI pronunciation evaluation

4. Smart Classroom Tools

Interactive whiteboards
Virtual reality (VR)
Augmented reality (AR)
Digital textbooks

⭐ PART 4 — EVALUATION & TESTING

1. Types of Tests

Achievement tests
Proficiency tests
Diagnostic tests
Placement tests

2. Characteristics of a Good Test

Validity
Reliability
Practicality
Scorability
Objectivity

3. Test formats

MCQs
Cloze tests
Essay questions
Matching
True/False
Interviews (oral)
Portfolio assessment

⭐ PART 5 — TEACHER ROLES

Teacher acts as:

Facilitator
Guide
Assessor
Motivator
Resource provider
Monitor
Co-communicator

⭐ PART 6 — CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT & LEARNER VARIABLES

1. Learner variables

Age
Motivation
Learning styles
Intelligence types
Attitude
Personality

2. Classroom management

Seating arrangement
Time management
Grouping strategies
Clear instructions
Using L1 judiciously

⭐ PART 7 — CURRENT TRENDS IN ELT

Blended learning
Flipped classroom
Mobile learning
Gamification
Microlearning
English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

UNIT 6 — PART 1

THEOREORETICAL FOUNDATIONS & MAJOR APPROACHES IN ELT

1. INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING (ELT)

English Language Teaching (ELT) is a multidisciplinary field that draws from linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, and technology. It addresses:

How learners acquire a second or foreign language
How teachers can design effective instruction
How communication skills are developed
How learning outcomes are evaluated

It is both a science (because it uses theories of language and learning) and an art (because it depends on the teacher’s creativity, motivation, and classroom interaction).

Modern ELT emphasizes communication, learner autonomy, real-life tasks, and the integration of technology.

⭐ 2. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

Language learning theories form the backbone of all ELT methods. History shows a shift from teacher-centered → learner-centered → technology-supported approaches.

⭐ 2.1 BEHAVIOURISM

(B.F. Skinner, 1957 — Verbal Behavior)

Behaviourism views learning as:

Habit formation
Repetition-based training
Conditioning through rewards

Core Ideas

Language = set of habits
Learning occurs through imitation
Reinforcement strengthens correct responses
Errors are “bad habits”

Pedagogical Features

Repetition drills
Pattern practice
Mimicry
Choral responses

Influence on ELT

Audiolingual Method (ALM)
Direct Method (partly)

Criticism

Overly mechanical
No creativity
Learners depend on memorization
Does not explain generative ability of language

⭐ 2.2 COGNITIVISM

(Noam Chomsky, 1965 — Mentalist Theory)

Chomsky rejected Behaviourism and argued:

Language ability is innate
Human mind has a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Learning is not habit formation but rule formation

Key Concepts

Deep structure vs surface structure
Competence vs performance
Universal Grammar

Implications for ELT

Learners must understand grammar rules
Language is creative and generative

Influence

Cognitive-Code Approach
Understanding before practice
Teaching grammar explicitly

⭐ 2.3 CONSTRUCTIVISM

(Vygotsky, Bruner, Piaget)

Constructivism argues:

Learning is an active, constructive process
Learners build their own knowledge
Social interaction is crucial

Key Principles

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Scaffolding
Collaborative learning
Problem-solving and discovery

Influence

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Task-Based Learning (TBL)
Group work, pair work, real interaction

⭐ 2.4 KRASHEN’S FIVE HYPOTHESES

(Stephen Krashen, 1982)

Krashen revolutionized ELT with five powerful hypotheses:

1. Acquisition vs Learning

Acquisition = subconscious (like children)
Learning = conscious grammar
Acquisition is more powerful

2. Monitor Hypothesis

Learned rules act as a “monitor”
Overuse causes hesitation

3. Input Hypothesis (i + 1)

Learners progress when they receive comprehensible input slightly beyond their current level

4. Natural Order Hypothesis

Language is acquired in a predictable sequence

5. Affective Filter Hypothesis

Motivation, confidence, and low anxiety promote learning

Impact on ELT

Extensive reading
Listening-first approaches
Natural Approach
Low-anxiety classrooms

⭐ 2.5 SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

(Vygotsky)

Language learning occurs in:

Social interaction
Meaningful communication
Culturally relevant contexts

Key ideas include scaffolding, dialogue, and collaborative tasks.

⭐ 2.6 INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (Long)

Michael Long proposed:

Interaction facilitates language development
Negotiation of meaning (asking for clarification) improves comprehension

Examples:

“Do you mean…?”
“Could you repeat that?”

This laid the groundwork for:

CLT
TBLT
Pair work and group tasks

⭐ 3. APPROACHES VS METHODS VS TECHNIQUES

Approach

Theory or belief about how language is learned (broad level)
Example: Communicative Approach

Method

Step-by-step plan based on an approach
Example: Audiolingual Method

Technique

Classroom activity used in method
Example: drills, role play, dictation

⭐ 4. MAJOR APPROACHES & METHODS IN ELT (DETAILED)

⭐ 4.1 Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

Oldest method; still used in Indian schools.

Features

Grammar rules taught deductively
Translation L1 ↔ L2
Focus on reading & writing
Memorization of vocabulary

Strengths

Easy to implement
Good for exams focused on grammar

Weaknesses

No communication
Students can’t speak
Unrealistic context

This method is NOT communication-oriented, but still important for TRB syllabus.

⭐ 4.2 Direct Method (DM)

Principles

No mother tongue
Only target language
Real-life situations
Natural acquisition

Techniques

Action-based teaching
Real objects and pictures
Q&A sessions
Narration

Strengths

Improves oral fluency
Immersion method

Weaknesses

Teacher must be highly proficient
Difficult for large classes

⭐ 4.3 Audiolingual Method (ALM)

Developed by U.S. Army (1940s).

Principles

Behaviourism + Structural Linguistics
Language as a set of habits
Emphasis on accuracy
No explanation of grammar

Techniques

Substitution drills
Repetition drills
Transformation drills
Chain drills

Strengths

Good pronunciation training
Useful for beginners

Weaknesses

Mechanical
No creativity
Limited communication

⭐ 4.4 Cognitive-Code Approach

Principles

Understanding grammar rules leads to mastery
Learning = meaningful mental processing

Techniques

Analytic grammar tasks
Rule explanation
Problem-solving

⭐ 4.5 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Most popular in modern ELT.

Core Principles

Communicative competence is the goal
Fluency > accuracy (at early stages)
Real communication tasks

Components of Communicative Competence

Grammatical competence
Sociolinguistic competence
Discourse competence
Strategic competence

Techniques

Pair work
Group discussion
Role play
Information gap
Task-based activities

CLT makes learners active participants.

⭐ 4.6 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

Origin

N. S. Prabhu’s Bangalore Project (1980s)

Principle

Language is acquired by doing tasks, not by learning structures first

Stages

Pre-task
Task cycle
Post-task

Strengths

Real-world learning
Highly communicative

⭐ 4.7 Natural Approach

Developers

Stephen Krashen & Tracy Terrell

Principles

Comprehensible input
Low-anxiety environment
Focus on listening before speaking
Grammar taught implicitly

⭐ 4.8 Silent Way

Developer

Caleb Gattegno

Principles

Teacher is silent
Learners discover language
Use of Cuisenaire rods

Encourages student autonomy.

⭐ 4.9 Suggestopedia

Developer

Georgi Lozanov

Principles

Learning enhanced through relaxation
Music, comfortable seating
Positive suggestion

⭐ 4.10 Total Physical Response (TPR)

Developer

James Asher

Principles

“Learning by doing”
Listening → Action → Speaking
Useful for beginners

Example Activities

“Stand up”
“Pick up the pen”
“Open your book”

⭐ 4.11 Eclectic Method

Modern classrooms use a mix of methods.

Principles

Teacher chooses techniques that best suit:

Age
Level
Objective
Classroom environment

This method is flexible and widely used today.

⭐ 5. CONTEMPORARY LANGUAGE TEACHING PARADIGMS

5.1 Communicative Approach

Focuses on functional and meaningful communication rather than form.

5.2 Lexical Approach (Michael Lewis)

Focus on word chunks, collocations
“Language consists of chunks, not words”

5.3 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

Subjects taught through English
Widely used in Europe

5.4 ESP (English for Specific Purposes)

English tailored to professional needs

Aviation English
Business English
Technical English

⭐ 6. FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE LEARNING

1. Age

Children acquire naturally
Adults learn analytically

2. Motivation

Intrinsic
Extrinsic

3. Learning style

Visual
Auditory
Kinesthetic

4. Attitude

Positive attitude improves performance.

5. Personality

Introverts vs extroverts

⭐ 7. ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN MODERN ELT

The teacher evolves from:

Instructor → Facilitator
Controller → Guide
Authority → Co-communicator

Modern teacher:

Uses technology
Designs tasks
Manages interaction
Provides scaffolding
Encourages learner autonomy

UNIT 6 — PART 2

METHODS, TECHNIQUES & CLASSROOM PRACTICES IN ELT

INTRODUCTION

Part 2 of Unit 6 focuses on the practical side of English Language Teaching (ELT).
While Part 1 covered the theories and approaches, Part 2 explores:

Methods used in the classroom
Techniques that support teaching
Syllabus design principles
Classroom strategies such as pair work, group work, and language games
Evaluation of teaching methods
Practical examples for each method

These components are essential for a TRB aspirant because questions often focus on:

Identifying correct method
Matching technique with approach
Characteristics of a syllabus type
Real-life classroom practices

This expanded version is structured in a clear, simple, and exam-oriented way.

⭐ 1. METHODS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING (DETAILED)

A “method” is a systematic plan for presenting language material.
It links theory (approach) and practice (techniques).

Below are 13 major methods used in ELT.

⭐ 1.1 Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

Oldest method, still seen in Indian schools.

Objectives

Read and translate classical literature
Develop grammar accuracy
Expand vocabulary through memorization

Classroom Practices

Reading long passages
Translating sentences
Identifying grammar rules
Writing answers using L1-L2 translation

Teacher Role

Authority
Knowledge-giver

Learner Role

Passive receiver
Memorizer

Strengths

Good for grammar-based exams
Easy for large classrooms

Weaknesses

No focus on speaking or listening
No real communication
Mechanical

⭐ 1.2 Direct Method (DM)

Also called Natural Method.

Objectives

Think directly in English
Develop oral fluency

Features

No mother tongue allowed
Emphasis on speaking + listening
Demonstration through objects, pictures, actions
Everyday vocabulary

Techniques

Q&A drills
Realia (real objects)
Role play
Pronunciation focus

Strengths

Immersive
Develops oral skills

Weaknesses

Difficult for low-resource classrooms
Teachers need high proficiency

⭐ 1.3 Audiolingual Method (ALM)

Developed for U.S. army soldiers during WWII.

Principles

Behaviourism → habit formation
Structuralism → language is patterns
No grammar explanation

Classroom Techniques

Repetition drills
Substitution drills
Transformation drills
Minimal pairs
Dialogue memorization

Strengths

Good pronunciation
Controlled practice

Weaknesses

Rote-learning
Not communicative

⭐ 1.4 Cognitive-Code Method

Reaction against ALM.

Principles

Understanding grammar rules builds strong competence
Learning is a thinking process
Errors = signs of growth

Techniques

Rule explanation
Grammar charts
Inductive & deductive reasoning

⭐ 1.5 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Most influential modern approach.

Principles

Communication > grammar
Meaningful use of language
Fluency before accuracy
Learner-centered

Techniques

Information gap
Role play
Pair work
Group discussions
Task completion
Opinion sharing

Teacher Role

Facilitator
Monitor
Guide

Learner Role

Active participant
Negotiator of meaning

⭐ 1.6 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

Introduced by N. S. Prabhu (Bangalore Project).

Principles

Task completion leads to learning
Meaning comes before form

Stages

Pre-task
Task
Post-task

Examples

Planning a trip
Solving a puzzle
Writing an email
Interviewing classmates

⭐ 1.7 Natural Approach

By Krashen & Terrell.

Principles

Comprehensible input (i + 1)
No pressure to speak early
Low anxiety environment
Meaning-focused activities

Suitable for

Beginners
ESL classrooms

⭐ 1.8 Silent Way

By Caleb Gattegno.

Principles

Teacher talks less; students talk more
Self-correction encouraged
Discovery learning

Tools

Cuisenaire rods
Sound-color chart

⭐ 1.9 Total Physical Response (TPR)

By James Asher.

Principles

“Learning by doing”
Commands → actions → speaking

Examples

“Stand up”
“Open your book”
“Jump three times”

Benefits

Very effective for beginners
Stress-free
Multi-sensory learning

⭐ 1.10 Suggestopedia

By Georgi Lozanov.

Principles

Relaxed learning environment
Music + comfortable seating
Positive suggestion

Objective

Accelerated language learning

⭐ 1.11 Community Language Learning (CLL)

By Charles Curran.

Principles

Humanistic psychology
Teacher = counselor
Learner = client
Group solidarity

Techniques

Recording conversations
Reflective listening
Group circles

⭐ 1.12 Eclectic Method

Most practical for Indian classrooms.

Principle

Use the best techniques from various methods.

Examples

GTM + CLT for mixed classrooms
ALM drills + TBLT tasks

⭐ 1.13 Lexical Approach

By Michael Lewis.

Focus

Collocations
Lexical chunks
Formulaic expressions
Not grammar-first

⭐ 2. TECHNIQUES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Techniques are micro-level strategies used within any method.

Below are top 25 techniques essential for exams and classroom use.

⭐ 2.1 Pair Work

Enhances speaking
Encourages negotiation
Increases participation
Used in CLT, TBLT

Examples:

Interview partner
Compare answers

⭐ 2.2 Group Work

Collaboration
Problem-solving
Brainstorming

⭐ 2.3 Role Play

Simulation of real-world situations
Develops fluency and confidence
Used in CLT

Examples:

Buying groceries
Doctor-patient conversation

⭐ 2.4 Language Games

Increases motivation
Improves retention

Examples:

Word bingo
Vocabulary races

⭐ 2.5 Information Gap

One student has information the other needs
Encourages questioning and clarification

⭐ 2.6 Jigsaw

Each group has part of a text
Students combine pieces to complete the whole

⭐ 2.7 Dictogloss

Teacher reads a text
Students reconstruct it
Focus on grammar + meaning

⭐ 2.8 Brainstorming

Idea generation
Useful for writing, speaking tasks

⭐ 2.9 Drills

(Used in ALM)

Types:

Repetition
Substitution
Transformation
Expansion

⭐ 2.10 Scaffolding

Temporary support
Teacher gradually withdraws
Based on Vygotsky

⭐ 2.11 Problem-Solving Tasks

Critical thinking
Guided reasoning

⭐ 2.12 Picture Composition

Creative expression
Useful for writing

⭐ 2.13 Storytelling

Enhances imagination
Improves narrative skill

⭐ 2.14 Dialogues

Controlled conversation practice
Useful for beginners

⭐ 2.15 Error Correction Techniques

Self-correction
Peer correction
Teacher correction

⭐ 3. SYLLABUS TYPES IN ELT (DETAILED)

A syllabus organizes what is taught and learned.

Here are the 8 major types, crucial for exams.

⭐ 3.1 STRUCTURAL SYLLABUS

Based on grammar structures.

Examples

Present tense
Articles
Prepositions

Advantages

Systematic
Easy to test

⭐ 3.2 SITUATIONAL SYLLABUS

Based on real-life situations.

Examples:

At the bank
At the airport
Buying food

⭐ 3.3 FUNCTIONAL-NOTIONAL SYLLABUS

Based on functions and notions.

Functions

Apologizing
Requesting
Complaining

Notions

Time
Quantity
Location

⭐ 3.4 COMMUNICATIVE SYLLABUS

Includes tasks, situations, functions, grammar, vocabulary.

⭐ 3.5 TASK-BASED SYLLABUS

Organized around tasks, not grammar.

Example tasks:

Planning a journey
Conducting a survey
Interviewing people

⭐ 3.6 LEXICAL SYLLABUS

Focus on vocabulary and lexical chunks.

⭐ 3.7 SKILLS-BASED SYLLABUS

Focus on LSRW skills.

⭐ 3.8 CONTENT-BASED SYLLABUS (CLIL)

Language + subject content combined.

⭐ 4. CLASSROOM PRACTICES

4.1 Teaching Listening

Pre-listening
While-listening
Post-listening

4.2 Teaching Speaking

Fluency activities
Pronunciation drills
Debates
Role plays

4.3 Teaching Reading

Skimming
Scanning
Intensive reading
Extensive reading

4.4 Teaching Writing

Brainstorming
Drafting
Editing
Final writing

⭐ 5. ERROR TREATMENT IN ELT

Types of Errors

Interlingual
Intralingual
Global
Local

Techniques

Elicitation
Reformulation
Repetition
Clarification

⭐ 6. TEACHER ROLES IN METHODS

Method	Teacher Role
GTM	Authority
Direct Method	Model
ALM	Drill leader
CLT	Facilitator
TBLT	Task designer
CLL	Counselor
Silent Way	Observer
Natural Approach	Provider of input

UNIT 6 — PART 3

TECHNOLOGY IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING (ELT)

INTRODUCTION TO TECHNOLOGY IN ELT

Technology has transformed English Language Teaching (ELT) from a traditional, textbook-driven classroom into an interactive, multimedia-rich learning environment. In modern pedagogy, technology:

Provides exposure to authentic English
Enhances listening and speaking skills
Supports individualised learning
Motivates students
Makes teaching more efficient
Expands learning beyond the classroom

Unit 6 Part 3 deals with ICT (Information & Communication Technology), CALL, MALL, AI, multimedia tools, and modern digital trends in teaching English.

⭐ 1. ICT IN ELT (Information & Communication Technology)

ICT refers to digital tools used to create, store, share, and process information.

Key ICT Components in ELT

Internet
Smartphones
Computers
Projectors
Interactive whiteboards
Learning management systems (LMS)
Online dictionaries
Digital libraries
Multimedia content

Benefits of ICT in ELT

Immediate access to information
Authentic language exposure
Personalized learning
Interactive and engaging
Supports slow and fast learners
Increases autonomy
Encourages collaborative learning

⭐ 2. CALL — COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING

CALL is a major area in modern ELT.

Definition

Using computer software, programs, and digital tools to aid language learning.

Stages of CALL

Behavioristic CALL (1960s–70s)

Drill and practice
Repetition-based

Communicative CALL (1980s–90s)

Problem-solving
Games
Simulations

Integrative CALL (2000s onwards)

Multimedia
Internet-based learning
Web 2.0 tools

Examples of CALL Tools

BBC Learning English
British Council apps
Grammarly
Google Classroom
QuillBot (writing assistance)
Moodle
Turnitin

Advantages

Instant feedback
Multimedia learning
Flexible and self-paced
Improves digital literacy

Disadvantages

Requires devices
Internet issues in rural areas
Teacher training needed

⭐ 3. MALL — MOBILE ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING

MALL focuses on smartphones and tablets.

Why MALL?

India has millions of smartphone users
Students always carry mobile phones
Learning becomes anytime–anywhere

Popular MALL Apps

Duolingo
Elsa Speak
Hello English
Cake
Busuu
Memrise
YouTube English channels
WhatsApp groups for learning

Benefits of MALL

Portable
Motivating
Bite-sized learning
Useful for speaking practice

⭐ 4. INTERNET-BASED RESOURCES IN ELT

4.1 Websites

BBC Learning English
British Council LearnEnglish
Grammarly
Purdue OWL

4.2 Online Dictionaries

Cambridge
Oxford Learner’s Dictionary
Merriam-Webster
Collins

4.3 Digital Libraries

Project Gutenberg
Google Books
Archive.org

⭐ 5. MULTIMEDIA IN ELT

Multimedia combines:

Text
Sound
Images
Animation
Video
Interactive simulations

5.1 Audio Tools

Podcasts
Audio books
Pronunciation tools (ELSA Speak, Forvo)

5.2 Video Tools

YouTube tutorials
English movies
Documentaries
Animated explanations

5.3 Interactive Tools

Kahoot (quizzes)
Quizizz
Mentimeter
Padlet
Nearpod

Benefits of Multimedia

Improves listening & speaking
Visual learners benefit
Real-life language use
More engaging than textbooks

⭐ 6. LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (LMS)

LMS platforms organize digital learning.

Examples

Google Classroom
Moodle
Edmodo
Blackboard
Canvas

Functions

Upload assignments
Share materials
Conduct quizzes
Track student progress
Provide feedback

⭐ 7. VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS (VLE)

Used extensively during COVID-19.

Platforms

Zoom
Microsoft Teams
Google Meet
Webex

Tools

Breakout rooms
Screen sharing
Live polls
Recording classes

⭐ 8. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) IN ELT

AI is the future of language teaching.

AI Tools in ELT

ChatGPT
Grammarly
QuillBot
AI pronunciation tools
AI accent analysis apps

AI Uses

Personalized learning paths
Automated essay scoring
Speaking evaluation
Grammar checking
Vocabulary suggestions

Advantages

Highly individualized learning
Instant corrections
Data-driven insights

Concerns

Over-dependence
Ethical issues
Need for AI literacy training

⭐ 9. BLENDED LEARNING

Combines:
face-to-face classroom teaching + online learning

Models of Blended Learning

Flipped Classroom
Rotation Model
Flex Model

⭐ 10. FLIPPED CLASSROOM

In a flipped classroom:

Students learn content at home
Class time used for practice and activities

Benefits

Self-paced learning at home
More interaction in class
Deeper learning

Tools used

YouTube
Google Classroom
Edpuzzle (interactive video tool)

⭐ 11. DIGITAL ASSESSMENT TOOLS

Examples

Google Forms
Kahoot
Quizizz
Socrative
Hot Potatoes

Advantages

Automatic scoring
Real-time assessment
Reduces teacher workload

⭐ 12. SOCIAL MEDIA IN ELT

Students use social media daily, making it a powerful learning tool.

Platforms Used

WhatsApp
Facebook groups
Instagram reels (English phrases)
Telegram channels
Reddit English forums

Uses

Sharing vocabulary lists
Group discussions
Voice messages for speaking practice
Meme-based learning

⭐ 13. DIGITAL STORYTELLING

Learners create stories using:

Images
Voice recordings
Video clips
Text overlays

Tools:

Adobe Spark
Canva
PowerPoint
Animoto

⭐ 14. VIRTUAL REALITY (VR) AND AUGMENTED REALITY (AR)

Uses in ELT

Virtual field trips
Interactive simulations
Immersive language experiences

Examples

VR English conversation apps
AR flashcards (3D objects)

⭐ 15. CLOUD COMPUTING IN ELT

Cloud Tools

Google Drive
OneDrive
Dropbox

Uses

Storing materials
Sharing lesson plans
Group assignments

⭐ 16. EMAIL & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Teaching email etiquette is essential for modern learners.

Skills taught

Formal vs informal email writing
Email structure
Subject line clarity
Attachments
Netiquette (internet etiquette)

⭐ 17. TECHNOLOGY-SUPPORTED SKILL DEVELOPMENT

17.1 Teaching Listening

Tools:

Podcasts
YouTube
Audiobooks

Skills Improved:

Accent understanding
Phonetic comprehension

17.2 Teaching Speaking

Tools:

WhatsApp voice notes
AI pronunciation apps
Zoom discussions

Activities:

Speaking clubs
Interview practice

17.3 Teaching Reading

Tools:

Digital newspapers
Graded readers
Online articles

17.4 Teaching Writing

Tools:

Grammarly
Google Docs
QuillBot

Activities:

Blog writing
Online journals

⭐ 18. LIMITATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELT

Overdependence on gadgets
Internet limitations
Unequal access (digital divide)
Teacher training required
Distractions (social media)

⭐ 19. FUTURE TRENDS IN DIGITAL ELT

AI tutors
VR classrooms
Adaptive learning systems
Fully digital textbooks
Speech recognition tools
Emotion-tracking learning systems

⭐ 20. CONCLUSION

Technology is now integral to English language teaching.
Unit 6 Part 3 enables TRB candidates to:

Understand CALL, MALL, ICT
Use digital tools effectively
Integrate AI in teaching
Apply multimedia techniques
Plan digital assessments
Keep up with modern trends

This is one of the most important areas in the TRB syllabus because English pedagogy now depends heavily on digital literacy.

UNIT 6 — PART 4

TESTING & EVALUATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING (ELT)

INTRODUCTION

Testing and evaluation are essential components of English Language Teaching (ELT). They help teachers:

measure learner progress
identify strengths and weaknesses
design remedial instruction
ensure learning outcomes
maintain academic standards
motivate learners

Language testing has its own principles, types, techniques, and frameworks, and is one of the most frequently asked areas in PG-TRB and NET exams.

Part 4 covers:

Key concepts (test, assessment, evaluation)
Qualities of a good test
Types of tests
Approaches to assessment
Testing the four skills
Scoring and feedback
Alternative assessment methods
Washback effect
Current trends in digital testing

⭐ 1. BASIC CONCEPTS IN TESTING

1. Test

A systematic way of measuring a person’s language ability using questions, tasks, or procedures.

2. Assessment

A broader term that includes all methods used to measure learner performance — tests, quizzes, observations, portfolios, presentations, self-evaluation, etc.

3. Evaluation

Judging the effectiveness of:

teaching
learning
materials
curriculum

Evaluation is larger than assessment.

4. Measurement

Assigning numerical scores to learner performance.

⭐ 2. PURPOSES OF LANGUAGE TESTING

A. Administrative Purpose

promotion
selection
placement
certification

B. Instructional Purpose

diagnosing learner difficulties
improving teaching
identifying learning gaps

C. Research Purpose

collect data for linguistic or educational research

⭐ 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST

(EXTREMELY IMPORTANT — TRB asks this repeatedly)

A good language test must satisfy the following qualities:

⭐ 1. Validity

A test measures what it is supposed to measure.
Types:

a. Content validity

Covers syllabus content fully.

b. Construct validity

Measures the concept or skill (e.g., reading comprehension, speaking ability).

c. Face validity

Looks appropriate to students and teachers.

d. Criterion-related validity

Compared with external criteria.

Concurrent validity — matches an existing test
Predictive validity — predicts future performance

⭐ 2. Reliability

Consistency of test scores.

A reliable test:

gives similar results on different occasions
is free from scoring errors
uses clear instructions

Types:

Test-retest reliability
Inter-rater reliability (two scorers agree)
Intra-rater reliability (same scorer consistent)

⭐ 3. Practicality

Easy to administer, score, and interpret.

⭐ 4. Discrimination Power

Differentiates strong students from weak ones.

⭐ 5. Washback Effect

Impact of testing on teaching and learning.

Positive washback:

students practice more
teachers improve methods

Negative washback:

rote memorization
teaching only for exams

⭐ 4. TYPES OF LANGUAGE TESTS

⭐ 1. Placement Test

Determines the learner’s level before joining a course.

Tools:

online level tests
grammar/vocabulary check
reading tasks

⭐ 2. Diagnostic Test

Identifies learner weaknesses before instruction.

Used for:

vocabulary knowledge
grammar gaps
pronunciation problems

⭐ 3. Proficiency Test

Measures overall ability, regardless of syllabus.

Examples:

TOEFL
IELTS
Cambridge exams

⭐ 4. Achievement Test

Measures learning after instruction.

Two types:

Final exam
Unit / Chapter test

⭐ 5. Formative Test

Continuous assessment during learning.

Examples:

quizzes
assignments
classroom discussions
peer evaluation

⭐ 6. Summative Test

Given at the end of a course for promotion or certification.

⭐ 7. Norm-Referenced Test (NRT)

Compares students against each other.

⭐ 8. Criterion-Referenced Test (CRT)

Measures student performance against fixed standards or learning outcomes.

⭐ 9. Objective Test

Exact answers (MCQs, true/false).

⭐ 10. Subjective Test

Open-ended responses (essays, descriptions).

⭐ 5. TESTING LANGUAGE SKILLS

Testing language skills is a major component of ELT.

⭐ A. Testing Listening

Tools:

audio clips
dialogues
recorded lectures

Question types:

true/false
MCQs
gap filling
summarizing

Checklist:

speed
accent
comprehension
note-taking ability

⭐ B. Testing Speaking

Aspects evaluated:

pronunciation
fluency
stress & intonation
accuracy
interaction

Task types:

interviews
role play
oral presentations
picture description
group discussion

⭐ C. Testing Reading

Question types:

MCQs
short answers
skimming/scanning tasks
inference questions

Skills tested:

vocabulary
comprehension
interpretation
speed

⭐ D. Testing Writing

Components evaluated:

coherence
cohesion
grammar
vocabulary
mechanics (punctuation, spelling)

Task types:

essays
letters
reports
creative writing
summaries

⭐ 6. TESTING LANGUAGE COMPONENTS

⭐ 1. Grammar

MCQs, error correction, transformation, cloze tests.

⭐ 2. Vocabulary

Synonyms, antonyms, word formation, collocations.

⭐ 3. Pronunciation

Minimal pairs, stress patterns, phonemic transcription.

⭐ 7. SCORING & MARKING

1. Holistic Scoring

One overall score based on impression.

2. Analytic Scoring

Scores for each component:

grammar
vocabulary
organization
fluency

3. Rubrics

Detailed scoring guidelines ensuring reliability.

4. Rating Scales

Used in speaking tests (0–5 or 0–10 scale).

⭐ 8. TEST CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

(VERY IMPORTANT FOR TRB)

Define objectives
Prepare test blueprint
Write test items
Decide scoring method
Conduct pilot testing
Analyze item difficulty
Finalize the test

⭐ 9. ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT METHODS

Useful in communicative classrooms.

1. Portfolio Assessment

Collection of students’ work showing progress.

2. Self-Assessment

Students evaluate their own learning.

3. Peer Assessment

Students evaluate each other.

4. Project-Based Assessment

Assesses:

research
creativity
writing
speaking

5. Performance-Based Assessment

Tasks involving language use:

skits
presentations
debates

6. Observation

Teacher notes learner behavior and progress.

⭐ 10. CONTEMPORARY DIGITAL ASSESSMENT

A. Online Tests

Google Forms, Microsoft Forms.

B. Gamified Quizzes

Kahoot, Quizizz.

C. AI-Based Assessment

Automated scoring (IELTS speaking AI, Grammarly).

D. Plagiarism Detection

Turnitin, Grammarly.

E. Computer Adaptive Tests

Question difficulty changes automatically as per student performance (e.g., Duolingo Test).

⭐ 11. COMMON PROBLEMS IN LANGUAGE TESTING

poorly written items
ambiguous instructions
cultural bias
overemphasis on grammar
memorization instead of application

⭐ 12. TEST ETHICS

Teachers must ensure:

fairness
transparency
confidentiality
unbiased scoring
no discrimination

⭐ 13. CONCLUSION

Testing and evaluation are essential pillars of ELT. Effective assessment:

guides teaching
motivates learners
provides feedback
ensures quality education

Modern ELT demands a balanced mix of traditional methods + technology-enabled testing + communicative assessment.

Unit 6 Part 4 is one of the core theoretical areas in competitive English exams.

UNIT 6 — PART 5

ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING (ELT)

INTRODUCTION

The role of the teacher in English Language Teaching (ELT) has undergone drastic changes over time.
Earlier, teachers were:

authorities
information-givers
grammar providers

Modern ELT demands that teachers become:

facilitators
guides
motivators
assessors
counselors
co-learners

This part explains the multiple roles played by an English teacher in modern classrooms, especially those adopting CLT, TBLT, technology-based learning, and learner-centered pedagogy.

⭐ 1. TRADITIONAL VS MODERN ROLE OF THE TEACHER

Traditional Teacher Role

Teacher-centered
Lecturing
Strict discipline
Authoritative correction
Focus on grammar and textbooks

Modern Teacher Role

Learner-centered
Guide, facilitator
Encourager of communication
Designer of tasks
Manager of learning environment
User of technology
Evaluator and counselor

⭐ 2. MAIN ROLES OF A TEACHER IN ELT

⭐ 1. Teacher as Facilitator

Modern ELT emphasizes the teacher’s role as a facilitator rather than a dictator.

Duties as Facilitator

Providing learning opportunities
Guiding student-centered activities
Monitoring pair and group work
Encouraging participation
Making learning enjoyable

A facilitator does not dominate the class; instead, they promote learner autonomy.

⭐ 2. Teacher as Guide

Teachers guide learners:

how to learn
where to find resources
how to practice independently
how to self-correct

Guidance is especially important in TBLT and CLT, where students are often engaged in tasks requiring independent exploration.

⭐ 3. Teacher as Motivator

Motivation is crucial in language learning.

Teacher Motivational Techniques

Giving praise and encouragement
Setting achievable goals
Using interesting materials
Bringing real-life English examples
Creating low-anxiety classrooms

Motivation aligns with Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis — low anxiety = better learning.

⭐ 4. Teacher as Resource Person

Students depend on teachers for:

language models
usage examples
guidance on vocabulary
grammar explanations
pronunciation support

A teacher must be:

well-read
linguistically competent
updated with language trends

⭐ 5. Teacher as Evaluator

Evaluation is a core responsibility.

Teacher evaluates:

speaking
reading
writing
listening
grammar
vocabulary
assignments
projects

Evaluation must be:

fair
constructive
unbiased

Evaluators use:

rubrics
rating scales
continuous assessment tools

⭐ 6. Teacher as Assessor

Assessment includes continuous monitoring through:

quizzes
observations
oral performance
feedback sessions
self-assessment encouragement

An assessor identifies:

student progress
strengths
weaknesses
remedial needs

⭐ 7. Teacher as Diagnostician

Diagnosis = identifying problems.

Teachers diagnose issues in:

grammar
vocabulary
pronunciation
comprehension
study skills
attitudes

Diagnostic tests, oral interviews, and observation help teachers understand learners better.

⭐ 8. Teacher as Counselor

Teachers offer emotional and academic support.

Counseling includes:

guiding frustrated learners
helping slow learners
reducing anxiety
encouraging shy students
offering strategies for better learning

This role aligns with Humanistic Approaches (e.g., Community Language Learning by Curran).

⭐ 9. Teacher as Manager / Classroom Controller

Classroom management ensures productive learning.

Teacher manages:

seating arrangement
time
discipline
use of technology
classroom interactions
transitions between activities

Effective classroom management leads to better communication and fewer disruptions.

⭐ 10. Teacher as Designer of Tasks/Materials

Teachers often create:

worksheets
tasks
quizzes
group activities
games
multimedia content

TBLT requires well-designed tasks.

⭐ 11. Teacher as Language Model

Teachers provide accurate examples of:

pronunciation
vocabulary
sentence structure
discourse patterns

Students often imitate the teacher’s language.

⭐ 12. Teacher as Researcher

Teachers engage in:

action research
classroom experiments
data collection
reflective practice

Research helps teachers analyze what works and what needs improvement.

⭐ 13. Teacher as Co-Learner

Teachers learn along with students:

new technologies
new methods
new vocabulary
better techniques

Modern ELT encourages teachers to be lifelong learners.

⭐ 14. Teacher as Technology Integrator

With ICT, CALL, MALL, and AI tools in ELT, teachers must:

use digital resources
create online quizzes
upload content
manage LMS platforms
use interactive whiteboards
incorporate videos, audios, animations

Tools:

Google Classroom
Moodle
Zoom
Kahoot
Quizizz
ChatGPT

⭐ 15. Teacher as Cultural Ambassador

Teachers introduce:

target culture
customs
communication styles
appropriate expressions

But they also respect local culture.

⭐ 16. Teacher as Curriculum Interpreter

Syllabus → lesson plans.

Teachers interpret:

learning objectives
outcomes
teaching points
sequencing

This ensures alignment between curriculum and classroom practice.

⭐ 3. TEACHER ROLES IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS

⭐ 1. GTM (Grammar Translation Method)

Teacher = Authority

Controls everything
Provides grammar rules
Gives translation tasks

⭐ 2. Direct Method

Teacher = Model

Speaks only English
Demonstrates meaning

⭐ 3. Audiolingual Method (ALM)

Teacher = Drill Master

Provides cues
Corrects errors immediately
Leads choral practice

⭐ 4. Cognitive-Code

Teacher = Cognitive trainer

Explains rules
Helps students understand patterns

⭐ 5. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Teacher = Facilitator

Organizes group work
Encourages communication
Monitors interaction

⭐ 6. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

Teacher = Task designer

Plans tasks
Gives instructions
Observes performance
Provides post-task feedback

⭐ 7. Natural Approach

Teacher = Provider of input

Uses comprehensible input
Creates stress-free atmosphere

⭐ 8. Silent Way

Teacher = Silent guide

Uses rods and charts
Encourages self-correction

⭐ 9. Suggestopedia

Teacher = Authority Figure + Performer

Uses music
Creates emotional comfort

⭐ 10. Community Language Learning (CLL)

Teacher = Counselor

Provides emotional support
Converts learner talk into English

⭐ 4. ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF A TEACHER

Teachers must ensure:

fairness
inclusiveness
cultural sensitivity
no bias
academic integrity
student safety

⭐ 5. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR TEACHERS

Teachers must constantly upgrade skills.

Activities:

workshops
refresher courses
online MOOCs
ELT webinars
conferences
reading research
collaborating with peers

Professional development ensures teaching quality.

⭐ 6. TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIP

A positive relationship leads to:

increased motivation
lower anxiety
better performance
classroom harmony

Teacher must be:

approachable
empathetic
patient

⭐ 7. CHALLENGES FACED BY TEACHERS IN ELT

Large classrooms
Mixed-ability learners
Lack of resources
Pressure of exams
Technology gaps
Student distractions
Language anxiety in shy learners

Teachers must adopt strategies to overcome these barriers.

UNIT 6 — PART 6

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT & LEARNER VARIABLES IN ELT

INTRODUCTION

Effective English Language Teaching (ELT) depends not only on methods and materials but also on:

Understanding learners
Managing the classroom environment
Creating conditions for successful learning

Learner variables (age, motivation, attitude, intelligence, personality, learning styles) greatly influence the way language is learned.
Classroom management ensures that the teaching-learning process runs smoothly.

Part 6 examines:

Learner differences
Learning styles
Classroom organization
Managing discipline
Pair/group work strategies
Seating arrangements
Teacher communication
Psychological and social aspects

These concepts are HIGHLY important for PG-TRB, SET, NET, B.Ed, and M.Ed exams.

⭐ PART A — LEARNER VARIABLES

Learners differ in many ways.
These differences affect:

speed of learning
interest
confidence
communication ability

A good teacher understands these variables and adjusts teaching accordingly.

⭐ 1. AGE AS A LEARNER VARIABLE

A. Children

Acquire language naturally
Learn through play
Short attention span
Visual and kinesthetic
Need frequent activities

B. Adolescents

Sensitive to criticism
Need approval from peers
Want relevant contexts
Motivated by real-life tasks

C. Adults

Stronger cognitive ability
Learn faster with rules
Fear of making mistakes
Prefer structured materials

Implication:

Instruction must match the developmental stage.

⭐ 2. MOTIVATION

Motivation is the MOST important predictor of language success.

Types of Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

Interest from within
Love for the language
Personal goals

Extrinsic Motivation

Exams
Job requirements
Rewards and grades

Instrumental Motivation

Practical reasons (career, travel)

Integrative Motivation

Desire to integrate with target culture

Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis

Low anxiety + high motivation = better learning

⭐ 3. ATTITUDE

Positive attitude leads to:

confidence
more practice
willingness to communicate

Negative attitude leads to:

fear
silence
avoidance of tasks

Teachers shape attitudes through:

friendly environment
relevant materials
positive feedback

⭐ 4. INTELLIGENCE & MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES (Howard Gardner)

Types of intelligences:

Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalistic

Teachers should design activities that appeal to multiple intelligence types.

⭐ 5. PERSONALITY

Major personality traits affecting learning:

Introversion → good at reading & writing
Extroversion → good at speaking & interacting
Risk-taking
Anxiety level
Empathy

A supportive teacher reduces anxiety and increases participation.

⭐ 6. LEARNING STYLES

Each learner has a preferred style:

1. Visual

Learns through charts, diagrams, pictures

2. Auditory

Learns through listening, speaking

3. Kinesthetic

Learns through movement, activity

4. Read/Write

Learns through notes, reading tasks

5. Field-independent / Field-dependent

Analytical vs social learning preferences

Implication:

Provide a variety of tasks to suit all learners.

⭐ 7. LEARNER STRATEGIES

Successful learners use strategies:

A. Cognitive Strategies

Summarizing
Note-taking
Reasoning

B. Metacognitive Strategies

Planning
Monitoring
Evaluating

C. Socio-affective Strategies

Asking questions
Discussing with peers
Reducing anxiety

⭐ 8. CULTURAL BACKGROUND

Learners from different cultures:

show different communication patterns
have different expectations
may be shy or outspoken

Teachers must be culturally sensitive.

⭐ PART B — CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Classroom management involves:

organizing space
managing activities
handling discipline
building rapport
using resources effectively

Good management maximizes learning time.

⭐ 1. PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

A. Seating Arrangements

Traditional Rows

Suitable for large classes
Limited interaction

U-Shape

Encourages discussion
Teacher can reach everyone

Circle or Semi-circle

Best for speaking tasks

Pairs

For dialogues
Pronunciation activities

Groups

For TBLT & CLT activities

Teachers choose arrangement depending on:

activity
class size
resources

⭐ 2. CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT

A good classroom environment includes:

positivity
respect
inclusiveness
encouragement
low anxiety
mutual trust

Teacher-friendly behavior creates willingness to communicate.

⭐ 3. INTERACTION PATTERNS

A. Teacher–Student Interaction

Asking questions
Giving instructions
Providing explanations

B. Student–Student Interaction

Pair work
Group work
Peer teaching

C. Whole-Class Interaction

Games
Debates
Brainstorming

Modern ELT promotes MAXIMUM student–student interaction.

⭐ 4. TEACHER TALK VS STUDENT TALK

Traditional class:

Teacher talks 90%
Students talk 10%

Modern ELT (CLT, TBLT):

Students talk more
Teacher monitors

Teacher talk must be:

simple
clear
supportive

⭐ 5. CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE

A disciplined classroom promotes effective learning.

Common Issues

Latecomers
Talking out of turn
Distractions (mobile phones)
Lack of focus

Management Techniques

Firm but friendly tone
Clear rules
Logical consequences
Engaging activities
Movement breaks

Punishment is discouraged.
Positive reinforcement is recommended.

⭐ 6. MANAGING LARGE CLASSES

India typically has 40–70 students per class.
Challenges:

Noise
No individual attention
Difficulty in monitoring

Solutions

Pair work
Peer correction
Using group leaders
Project work
Rotating activities

Large classes require efficient management.

⭐ 7. GIVING INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions must be:

short
clear
step-by-step
supported by gestures or examples

Good instructions prevent confusion.

⭐ 8. ERROR MANAGEMENT

Errors should be seen as:

natural
part of learning
opportunities for teaching

Types of Correction

Self-correction
Peer correction
Teacher correction
Delayed correction

Immediate correction is used in:

ALM
pronunciation practice

Delayed correction in:

CLT
speaking tasks

⭐ 9. TIME MANAGEMENT

Teachers must manage:

beginning of class
transitions
activity timing
lesson closure

Effective timing increases student engagement.

⭐ 10. CLASSROOM ROUTINES

Routines make learning predictable.

Examples:

Greeting
Checking homework
Warm-up
Lesson activity
Summary
Closing

⭐ 11. MANAGING PAIR AND GROUP WORK

Advantages

promotes communication
improves social skills
increases participation
reduces teacher dominance

Problems

noise
off-task behavior
unequal participation

Solutions

assign roles
monitor regularly
give clear instructions
set time limits

⭐ 12. MANAGING MULTI-LEVEL / MIXED-ABILITY CLASSROOMS

Indian classrooms often have:

advanced learners
average learners
slow learners

Strategies

differentiated tasks
flexible grouping
peer support
extra materials for fast learners

⭐ 13. BUILDING RAPPORT

Rapport improves:

motivation
confidence
participation

Teachers should be:

approachable
respectful
empathetic

⭐ 14. USE OF TECHNOLOGY FOR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Technology helps teachers manage:

attendance
assignment submission
sharing materials
monitoring performance

Tools:

Google Classroom
Zoom
Kahoot
Quizizz
YouTube
LMS platforms

Technology reduces administrative workload.

⭐ 15. CLASSROOM OBSERVATION AND REFLECTION

Teachers observe:

student behavior
participation
task completion
interaction patterns

Reflection improves professional growth.

⭐ 16. SOCIO-EMOTIONAL ENVIRONMENT

Language learning is emotional.

Teachers must promote:

confidence
empathy
cooperation
encouragement

A supportive emotional climate results in better performance.

⭐ PART C — SUMMARY

Learner variables affect:

pace
interest
motivation

Classroom management affects:

efficiency
communication
learning outcomes

A skilled teacher understands individual differences and creates an environment where English learning becomes natural, enjoyable, and productive.

UNIT 6 — PART 7

CULTURAL STUDIES & ITS RELEVANCE TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

INTRODUCTION

Cultural Studies is a major interdisciplinary field that connects:

· Language

· Literature

· Society

· Identity

· Power

· Media

· History

When applied to English Language Teaching (ELT), Cultural Studies helps teachers and learners:

· understand how language reflects culture

· develop intercultural competence

· avoid stereotypes

· interpret texts meaningfully

· become global communicators

This part explains how Cultural Studies influences ELT and how teachers integrate culture in language classrooms.

⭐ 1. WHAT IS CULTURAL STUDIES?

Cultural Studies is an academic discipline emerging in the 1960s–70s, primarily from the Birmingham School (UK) led by:

· Stuart Hall

· Richard Hoggart

· Raymond Williams

It examines everyday cultural practices and how they relate to power, identity, and communication.

Cultural Studies explores:

· Popular culture

· Media

· Films

· Fashion

· Technology

· Race

· Gender

· Class

· Nationality

· Globalization

Key Concepts

1. Representation

2. Identity

3. Power

4. Ideology

5. Hegemony

6. Global–local connections

⭐ 2. CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

Language and culture are inseparable.

“Language is the carrier of culture.” — Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“To learn a language is to learn a culture.” — Sapir & Whorf

Relationship:

· Culture shapes how people communicate

· Language reflects cultural beliefs

· Words carry cultural meaning

· Idioms, metaphors, proverbs express cultural values

Learning English involves understanding:

· English-speaking cultures

· Social norms

· Pragmatics

· Ways of politeness

· Appropriate expressions

⭐ 3. WHY CULTURE MATTERS IN ELT

1. Improves Communication

Culture determines:

· how people greet

· how they apologize

· how they make requests

· body language

· politeness strategies

2. Avoids Misunderstandings

A culturally unaware learner may unintentionally appear rude or arrogant.

3. Provides Context

Language becomes meaningful when linked to social context.

4. Enhances Motivation

Learning cultural aspects makes language interesting.

5. Prepares Students for Global Communication

English is a global language; learners interact with diverse cultures.

⭐ 4. CULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN ELT

1. Sociolinguistic Competence

Understanding:

· social norms

· politeness conventions

· formal vs informal usage

2. Pragmatic Competence

Using English appropriately in:

· requests

· refusals

· apologies

· compliments

3. Discourse Patterns

Different cultures structure communication differently.

4. Non-verbal Communication

Includes gestures, eye contact, proximity, silence.

5. Cultural Schemata

Learners interpret texts based on cultural background.

⭐ 5. MODELS OF CULTURE IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

⭐ 1. Big C Culture vs Little c culture

Big C (High Culture)

· Literature

· Art

· Music

· History

· Famous personalities

Little c (Everyday Culture)

· Food

· Greetings

· Festivals

· Clothing

· Social behaviors

· Lifestyles

ELT includes both.

⭐ 2. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Used widely in cross-cultural training.

1. Power distance

2. Individualism vs collectivism

3. Masculinity vs femininity

4. Uncertainty avoidance

5. Long-term vs short-term orientation

6. Indulgence vs restraint

Teachers should be aware of these differences.

⭐ 6. CULTURE IN LANGUAGE TEXTBOOKS

English textbooks present:

· diverse characters

· different cultures

· global themes

Good textbooks incorporate:

· pictures

· cultural notes

· social situations

· dialogues from daily life

Textbooks must avoid:

· stereotypes

· cultural bias

· ethnocentrism

⭐ 7. TEACHER’S ROLE IN CULTURAL EDUCATION

Teacher as:

1. Cultural guide

2. Mediator between cultures

3. Corrector of cultural misunderstandings

4. Representative of intercultural competence

Teachers must:

· explain cultural differences

· contextualize new vocabulary

· highlight pragmatic features

· teach politeness forms

· clarify idiomatic expressions

⭐ 8. CULTURAL ELEMENTS IN ELT METHODS

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

· role play

· real-world tasks

· cultural appropriateness

TBLT

· culturally meaningful tasks

· interviews about traditions

· projects on festivals

Natural Approach

· authentic cultural materials

ESP

· business communication

· academic culture

⭐ 9. CULTURAL CONTENT IN SKILL DEVELOPMENT

⭐ 1. Listening

Use:

· English news

· Movies

· Interviews

Focus on:

· accents

· tones

· humor

· cultural references

⭐ 2. Speaking

Teach:

· greetings

· agreeing/disagreeing politely

· conversational norms

· small talk patterns

· culturally appropriate gestures

⭐ 3. Reading

Texts represent cultural values.

Activities:

· compare cultures

· discuss themes

· interpret idioms

⭐ 4. Writing

Letters and emails differ across cultures.

Teach:

· salutation

· tone

· structure

· indirectness vs directness

⭐ 10. CULTURAL BIAS IN TESTING

Tests may favor learners from specific cultural backgrounds.

Types of bias:

· content bias

· language bias

· situational bias

Teachers must ensure:

· fairness

· inclusiveness

· sensitivity

⭐ 11. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE (ICC)

(By Michael Byram)

Components:

1. Knowledge (of cultures)

2. Skills of interpreting

3. Skills of interaction

4. Critical cultural awareness

5. Attitudes of curiosity

ICC is central in modern ELT.

⭐ 12. GLOBAL ENGLISHES & CULTURE

English is no longer limited to:

· UK

· USA

· Australia

Now includes:

· Indian English

· Singapore English

· Nigerian English

Teachers must acknowledge:

· multiple English standards

· multicultural identities

· pluricentric English

⭐ 13. CULTURE-SPECIFIC COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

Examples:

A. Direct vs Indirect

· Western cultures → direct

· Asian cultures → indirect

B. Small Talk

· Western → open small talk

· Asian → reserved

C. Silence

· Some cultures → respectful

· Others → awkward

Teaching these differences prevents miscommunication.

⭐ 14. CULTURAL MATERIALS IN ELT

Sources:

· Films

· Advertisements

· Social media

· Newspaper articles

· Folktales

· Festival descriptions

· Personal stories

Tasks:

· cultural comparison

· discussions

· group presentations

· interviews

⭐ 15. ENGLISH & CULTURE IN INDIA

India has a unique cultural position:

· multicultural

· multilingual

· hybrid influences

Indian English includes:

· local idioms

· native cultural references

· code-mixing

Teachers should embrace Indian English alongside native norms.

⭐ 16. CULTURE AND IDENTITY

Language learning shapes identity.

Students may:

· adapt new cultural habits

· feel cultural conflict

· broaden worldview

· negotiate hybrid identity

Teachers must support identity growth.

⭐ 17. CHALLENGES IN TEACHING CULTURE

1. Stereotyping

2. Cultural misinterpretation

3. Political or religious sensitivity

4. Teacher’s own biases

5. Lack of authentic materials

⭐ 18. STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESSFUL CULTURAL TEACHING

1. Use authentic materials

2. Encourage comparison

3. Promote open discussions

4. Avoid stereotypes

5. Teach non-verbal cues

6. Include multicultural perspectives

⭐ 19. ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN CULTURAL LEARNING

Tools:

· YouTube

· TED Talks

· Movies

· Online pen pals

· Language exchange apps

· VR cultural tours

Technology gives real-time cultural exposure.

⭐ 20. CONCLUSION

Cultural Studies enriches ELT by helping learners:

· understand the cultural context of English

· avoid misunderstandings

· develop global citizenship

· appreciate diversity

· become confident communicators

Moorthi Sukumar

TNTRB ASSISTANT PROFESSOR ENGLISH UNIT VI NOTES

INTRODUCTION

⭐ 1. WHAT IS CULTURAL STUDIES?

Cultural Studies explores:

Key Concepts

⭐ 2. CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

“Language is the carrier of culture.” — Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“To learn a language is to learn a culture.” — Sapir & Whorf

Relationship:

⭐ 3. WHY CULTURE MATTERS IN ELT

1. Improves Communication

2. Avoids Misunderstandings

3. Provides Context

4. Enhances Motivation

5. Prepares Students for Global Communication

⭐ 4. CULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN ELT

1. Sociolinguistic Competence

2. Pragmatic Competence

3. Discourse Patterns

4. Non-verbal Communication

5. Cultural Schemata

⭐ 5. MODELS OF CULTURE IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

⭐ 1. Big C Culture vs Little c culture

Big C (High Culture)

Little c (Everyday Culture)

ELT includes both.

⭐ 2. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

⭐ 6. CULTURE IN LANGUAGE TEXTBOOKS

⭐ 7. TEACHER’S ROLE IN CULTURAL EDUCATION

Teacher as:

⭐ 8. CULTURAL ELEMENTS IN ELT METHODS

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

TBLT

Natural Approach

ESP

⭐ 9. CULTURAL CONTENT IN SKILL DEVELOPMENT

⭐ 1. Listening

⭐ 2. Speaking

⭐ 3. Reading

⭐ 4. Writing

⭐ 10. CULTURAL BIAS IN TESTING

Types of bias:

⭐ 11. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE (ICC)

⭐ 12. GLOBAL ENGLISHES & CULTURE

⭐ 13. CULTURE-SPECIFIC COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

Examples:

A. Direct vs Indirect

B. Small Talk

C. Silence

⭐ 14. CULTURAL MATERIALS IN ELT

Sources:

Tasks:

⭐ 15. ENGLISH & CULTURE IN INDIA

⭐ 16. CULTURE AND IDENTITY

⭐ 17. CHALLENGES IN TEACHING CULTURE

⭐ 18. STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESSFUL CULTURAL TEACHING

⭐ 19. ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN CULTURAL LEARNING

⭐ 20. CONCLUSION

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